Table 2. Summary of key features, advantages, and limitations of LC-MS/MS, two-dimensional GC-MS, and NMR spectroscopy for analytical detection and quantification in complex food matrices

Technique	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS is used for metabolomics analysis to identify non-halal meats by detecting specific metabolites and protein markers.	1. High sensitivity and specificity2. Can detect multiple species markers simultaneously	1. Requires sophisticated data analysis tools like chemometrics2. High cost and complexity	Dewi et al. (2023)
Two-dimensional GC-MS	GC-MS is used to detect fatty acid methyl esters and volatile compounds in meat products to identify non-halal meats	1. High accuracy in identifying specific chemical compositions2. Effective for processed foods	1. Time-consuming and requires extensive sample preparation2. High capital cost	Iqbal et al. (2025)
NMR spectroscopy	NMR spectroscopy is used to profile and fingerprint chemical markers, such as lipids, to identify non-halal meats.	1. Non-destructive and provides detailed molecular information2. Can confirm chemical structures	1. Lower sensitivity compared to LC-MS/MS and GC-MS2. Requires large sample sizes	Fadzillah et al. (2017)

LC-MS/MS, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; GC-MS, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance.